The Rus’ and Viking Trade Networks

In the early Middle Ages, the Viking Rus’ emerged as a formidable power, controlling vast trade routes stretching from Scandinavia as far as the Caspian Sea – a journey of nearly 3,000 miles. Several commodities were shipped south, but the most profitable trade goods were slaves, captured and transported from Slavic and other local populations.

This enterprise played a central role in both the Rus’ economy and society, as demanded extended far from their homelands. The Rus’ established sophisticated networks that funneled captives down the great rivers of eastern Europe to the markets of Khazaria, Volga Bulgaria, and even as far as the Muslim world, connecting to the Silk Road. Slaves were traded for goods such as silver, spices, and silks, enriching Viking towns and fuelling the growth of commerce across the Baltic Sea and Black Sea regions.

This trade was not unique to the Rus’, however, as the global demand for slaves spanned from Central Europe to the Mediterranean and beyond. Cities like Prague, Venice, and Cordoba became key centres for trafficking, with human lives exchanged as commodities alongside more traditional goods. Over time, as economic shifts and growing political ambitions reshaped the medieval world, the Viking Rus’ transitioned from slavers to overlords, extracting tribute and consolidating control over key trade routes. Yet, the legacy of their involvement in the slave trade left a profound imprint on the development of both Europe and the broader medieval economy.

This article explores the Rus’ trade routes of the Viking Age, from the role they played in trafficking slaves, to operating protection rackets, and linking to Byzantium. It Is intended as background reading for Odyssey Traveller’s Scandinavia Guided Tour for mature-aged and senior travellers, during which we uncover a Viking past in the Scandinavian peninsula. Travelling from our centrally located hotel, we catch a glimpse of the world’s biggest fjords and some fabulous scenery on a journey through the countries of Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.

Much of the information in this article is drawn from the chapter “The Slave Road” in Peter Frankopan’s The Silk Roads: A New History of the World. 

The Viking Rus’ Slave Trade

The Rus’ were ruthless in enslaving local populations and transporting them south. The burden fell heavily on the local people, with so many taken that the very name of those taken – Slavs – eventually became synonymous with those who lost their freedom: slaves.

Slaves were transported along the river systems, kept in chains as they passed through treacherous rapids. Beautiful women were especially valuable, sold to merchants in Khazaria and Volga Bulgaria, who would then move them further south.

Slavery played a crucial role in Viking society and its economy—not only in the east. Significant literary and archaeological evidence from the British Isles indicates that one of the primary objectives of longship raids was not the indiscriminate pillaging often imagined, but rather the capture of individuals alive.

Many slaves were intended for Scandinavia, but a significant number were sent to markets where high prices were paid for quality individuals. The most lucrative demand was found in the thriving and affluent markets of Atil, which supplied Baghdad and other cities in Asia, as well as regions of the Muslim world, including North Africa and Spain.

The capacity and eagerness to pay high prices yielded substantial rewards and stimulated the economy of northern Europe. Evidence from coin finds indicates a surge in trade during the latter part of the ninth century, coinciding with significant growth in the Baltic region, southern Sweden, and Denmark, where towns such as Hedeby, Birka, Wolin, and Lund expanded rapidly.

Find-spots scattered across a broader area along Russian rivers indicate a significant increase in trade activity, particularly reflected in the rising number of coins minted in Central Asia—especially from Samarkand, Tashkent (al-Shāsh), Balkh, and other locations along the traditional trade and communication routes leading into present-day Afghanistan.

The demand for slaves in these affluent markets was immense, extending beyond just northern sources. A single trader claimed to have sold over 12,000 black slaves in Persian markets, while slaves from the Turkic tribes of Central Asia were also sought after for their courage and resourcefulness, as noted by a contemporary author.

Slave Markets Across Central Europe

Slave markets thrived across central Europe, where men, women and children were held in captivity, awaiting transport to the east and the court of Cordoba, which by 961 held over 13,000 Slavic slaves. By the mid-tenth century, Prague had emerged as a significant commercial hub, attracting Viking Rus’ and Muslim merchants who traded tin, furs, and human beings. Other towns in Bohemia also became key trading locations, where flour, barley, chickens, and slaves were all available at affordable prices.

Slaves were frequently given as gifts to Muslim rulers. In the early tenth century, for instance, an embassy from Tuscany to Baghdad presented the Abbāsid Caliph al-Muktafī with a collection of valuable offerings, including swords, shields, hunting dogs, and birds of prey. Among these tokens of friendship were twenty Slavic eunuchs and twenty exceptionally beautiful Slavic girls.

Long-distance trade was so widespread that even in the far western regions, one could find aromatics and spices that only grow in the Far East, such as pepper, ginger, cloves, nard, and galingale. Silver dirhams were also used as currency, including coins minted as far away as Samarkand.

The influence of coins from the Muslim world reached as far as England. Around 800, King Offa of Mercia, known for constructing the famous dyke to defend his territory from Welsh incursions, imitated the design of Islamic gold coins for his own currency. The fact that such currency had made its way to the distant British Isles is a testament to the vast reach of the Islamic world’s markets.

Overall, it was the slave trade that financed the influx of imports into Europe during the ninth century. The silks, spices, and drugs, increasingly mentioned in sources as prized luxury items or essential medical supplies, were paid for through large-scale human trafficking.

It wasn’t only the Viking Rus’ who benefitted from the insatiable demand for slaves; merchants in Verdun made vast profits selling eunuchs, typically to Muslim buyers in Spain. Jewish traders involved in long-distance commerce were also deeply engaged in the sale of “young girls and boys,” as well as eunuchs, according to Arabic sources from this period.

The lucrative returns of the slave trade attracted not only European traffickers but also Muslim entrepreneurs, who reportedly raided Slavic territories from as far east as Iran. Muslim traders were highly active throughout the Mediterranean. Men, women, and children from across northern Europe were transported to Marseilles, which had a bustling slave market. Many passed through secondary markets, such as Rouen, where Irish and Flemish slaves were sold to other buyers.

Rome was another major hub for the slave trade, but it was Venice that amassed vast wealth from the trafficking of human beings, laying the foundation for its rise as one of the gems of the medieval Mediterranean. Venetian merchants became involved in the slave trade as early as the latter half of the eighth century, at the very beginning of Venice’s settlement. Although the significant benefits and profits took time to accumulate, over the years, a dazzling city emerged from the marshes. Its grand churches and magnificent palazzi were built on the immense wealth generated from prolific trade with the East.

From the Slave Trade to Protection Rackets

Eventually, the slave trade from eastern and central Europe began to decline. One reason for this was the Viking Rus’ shift from long-distance human trafficking to running protection rackets. Their attention turned to the lucrative advantages the Khazars gained from trade passing through towns like Atil, where levies were imposed on all goods transiting Khazar territory. These taxes became the foundation of the Khazar economy.

Inevitably, this attracted the attention of the Viking Rus’, who also took note of the tribute paid to the Khazar khagan by various subject tribes. One by one, these tribes were targeted, with their loyalties and payments redirected to the Viking Rus’ as their new, more aggressive overlords. By the second half of the ninth century, the Slavic tribes of central and southern Russia were not only paying tribute to the Scandinavians but were also forbidden from making any further payments to the Khazars. From then on, tribute was to be paid solely to the Rus’ leader.

This shift mirrored practices seen elsewhere, such as in Ireland, where protection money gradually supplanted human trafficking. After enduring repeated attacks, the Irish eventually agreed to pay annual contributions in exchange for peace, as noted in the Annals of St Bertin.

In the east, the growing presence of the Rus’ soon led to direct confrontation with the Khazars. After launching a series of raids on Muslim trading communities along the Caspian Sea, which resulted in “rivers of blood” and persisted until the Viking Rus’ were “gorged with loot and worn out from raiding,” the Khazars themselves came under attack. In 965, Atil was sacked and completely destroyed.

With the Khazars effectively removed from the equation, profits from trade with the Muslim world surged towards northern Europe, as evidenced by the substantial quantities of coin hoards discovered along the waterways of Russia.

Rus’ Expansion and Shift in Trade Routes  

By the close of the tenth century, the Rus’ had emerged as the dominant power on the western steppe, commanding territory that extended from the Caspian Sea across the northern Black Sea region to the Danube. One source highlights the bustling markets they governed, where one could purchase “gold, silks, wine, and various fruits from Greece, silver and horses from Hungary and Bohemia, and from Rus’, furs, wax, honey, and slaves.”

However, their authority over these territories was not absolute. Relations with the nomadic peoples remained tenuous due to competition for resources. Nevertheless, throughout the tenth century, the Rus’ gradually solidified their control over the waterways and the steppes, making the communication routes leading southwards increasingly secure.

This shift was accompanied by a gradual transformation in the Rus’ commercial, religious, and political orientation. One factor contributing to this change was the instability that began to affect the caliphate in Baghdad after nearly 300 years of stability and prosperity. Economic success had weakened the bonds between the central authority and the outer regions, creating opportunities for friction as local rulers amassed power and clashed with one another. Internal unrest allowed the Būyids to seize political control over much of the caliphate’s heartlands in Iran and Iraq, reducing the Caliph to a figurehead with diminished authority. In Egypt, meanwhile, the regime was completely overthrown.

This upheaval, along with the subsequent decline in commercial opportunities, was one reason the Viking Rus’ increasingly shifted their focus to the Dnieper and Dniester rivers, which flowed into the Black Sea, rather than continuing their movements along the Volga towards the Caspian. Their attention began to drift away from the Muslim world, gravitating instead towards the Byzantine Empire and the great city of Constantinople.

The Byzantines were wary of the Rus’ attentions, particularly after a daring raid in 860 had caught the city’s inhabitants—and its defences—completely off guard. The Rus’ access to Constantinople’s markets was strictly regulated by the authorities. Nevertheless, relations gradually began to stabilise as towns like Novgorod, Chernigov, and especially Kiev evolved from mere trading posts into fortified strongholds and permanent settlements.

The adoption of Christianity by the Rus’ ruler Vladimir in 988 was also significant. It led to the establishment of an ecclesiastical network initially staffed by clergy sent from Constantinople, and it sparked a wave of cultural borrowings flowing northwards from the imperial capital. These influences gradually permeated various aspects of Rus’ society, shaping everything from icons and religious artefacts to church architecture and even the way the Rus’ dressed.

The Rus’ Evolving Relationship with Christian Byzantium

The Rus’ shifting focus from the Muslim world towards Constantinople was largely driven by significant changes in western Asia. One key factor was that successive Byzantine emperors had capitalised on the unrest and instability within the Abbāsid caliphate to reclaim several eastern provinces.

This marked a major redirection of assets and revenues away from Baghdad and towards Constantinople. Taxes and customs duties that had once enriched the caliphate now filled the coffers of the Byzantine Empire, ushering in a golden age for Byzantium.

Byzantium also greatly benefited from the breakdown in relations between Baghdad and Egypt in the late tenth century. In the late 980s, Emperor Basil II reached an agreement with the newly proclaimed Fātimid Caliph in Egypt, formalising trade links between the two powers. This, combined with the instability in the Abbasid caliphate, contributed to a reorientation of eastern trade routes. There was a clear shift away from the overland routes through Khazaria and the Caucasus, favouring maritime routes via the Red Sea instead.

From the perspective of the Rus’ and their emerging northern trade networks, the changes in the primary routes for spices, silks, pepper, hardwoods, and other goods from the east had little effect. There was no need to choose between Christian Constantinople and Muslim Baghdad. In fact, having two potential markets for buying and selling goods was more advantageous than relying on just one.

However, over time, attention increasingly shifted towards the Christian east and Byzantium. As western Europe’s horizons broadened, there was a growing interest in visiting the land where Jesus Christ had lived, died, and risen from the dead. Pilgrimage to Jerusalem became a notable source of prestige and honour.

Constantinople boasted an astonishing collection of Christian relics, including the nails used in the crucifixion of Jesus, the Crown of Thorns, the garments over which lots were cast, and fragments of the True Cross. It also housed hair from the Virgin Mary, the head of John the Baptist, and many other revered artefacts.

Jerusalem and Constantinople, as the heart and guardians of Christianity, attracted an increasing number of people to the Christian east, particularly to the imperial capital. Many came to trade, seek employment, or simply pass through on their way to the Holy Land. Throughout the eleventh century, Constantinople became a melting pot, hosting individuals from Britain, Italy, France, Germany, as well as from Kiev, Scandinavia, and Iceland. Traders from Venice, Pisa, Amalfi, and Genoa established colonies in the city to buy goods for export back home.

Conclusion: The Eastern Trade Connection

In the early Middle Ages, the key places were not in Paris or London, Germany or Italy, but in the east. Cities that connected to the east, such as Kherson in the Crimea and Novgorod, played crucial roles as links to the Silk Roads traversing the spine of Asia. Kiev, in particular, emerged as a linchpin of the medieval world, as evidenced by the marriage ties of its ruling house in the second half of the eleventh century.

The rise to power in these regions was driven by trade and access to sought-after goods. During the eighth to tenth centuries, the primary commodity for sale was slaves. However, as the economies of western and eastern Europe strengthened—bolstered by significant inflows of silver coinage from the Islamic world—towns expanded and their populations grew. This increase in population led to heightened interaction, which in turn generated a demand for monetisation, shifting trade from bartering goods like furs to using coinage.

As this transition occurred and local societies became more complex and sophisticated, social stratification developed, giving rise to urban middle classes. Money, rather than men, began to serve as the primary medium of trade with the east.

Scandinavia Viking Tour

During Odyssey Traveller 13-day tour in Scandinavia, we explore Denmark’s, Sweden’s’ and Norway’s ancient Viking heritage, World Heritage Sites, and charming Nordic cities, with some truly spectacular scenery along the way.

What these Scandinavian countries share in common is their natural beauty, and vibrant, unforgettable cultures. In low-lying Denmark, we visit meticulously maintained urban centres, including the vibrant capital of Copenhagen. We then continue our sightseeing tour and adventure in Sweden and its capital, Stockholm, now the financial capital of the region. Finally, after Sweden, we travel to Norway, famous for its breath-taking Norwegian coastal voyage favoured by tourists. Here, we journey over magnificent mountains and skirt picturesque fjords of Norway to reach Bergen.

Our Scandinavian tour also visits the Christiansborg Palace (outside visit), housing the Danish Parliament; the Vasa Museum; Vigeland Sculpture Park; and the old canal area, Nyhavn, with its picturesque houses and vessels and beautiful landscapes. This and more are all waiting to be explored on one of Odyssey’s small group tours of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. Designed for the senior traveller, and led by experienced, and enthusiastic likeminded people.

We also explore Viking history during our tours in the lands of Viking settlements, including our:

• Discover Greenland Small Group Tour (5 days)
• Faroe Islands Small Group Tour (5 days)
• Iceland Cultural and Wilderness Small Group tour (17 days)
• Vikings in Britain Small Group Tour (28 days)

Odyssey Traveller has been serving global travellers since 1983 with educational tours of the history, culture, and architecture of our destinations designed for mature and senior travellers. We specialise in offering small group tours partnering with a local tour guide at each destination to provide a relaxed and comfortable pace and atmosphere that sets us apart from larger tour groups. Tours consist of small groups of between 6 and 12 people and are cost inclusive of all entrances, tipping and majority of meals. For more information, click here, and head to this page to make a booking.